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The general objective of our study was to compose nuanced classifications of self-employed in the EU member states, based on the data of the 2015 European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS). This objective is achieved following two different research approaches. In a first approach (Task A) a tree-structured conceptual typology of self-employed is constructed using conceptual criteria routed in the current literature on self-employment and entrepreneurship. A second approach (Task C) applies a wider set of criteria determining the employment situation of self-employed in a data reduction technique (Latent Class Cluster Analysis) in order to derive an empirical typology of self-employed. In tasks B and D both the 'conceptual typology' and the 'empirical typology' are described according to a set of background characteristics (e.g. socio-demographics; socio-economic characteristics; job content and working conditions and relevant well-being-related outcomes). Moreover, both approaches are confronted with each other as a way to validate the results of both approaches.

The objectives of this study are related to current debates regarding self-employment. For both national and EU-policy makers, enhancing entrepreneurship - and the 'self-employed' worker status - is crucial for an innovative and flexible economic environment, as well as economic and employment growth (Parnanen & Sutela, 2016). Therefore, many policy makers see entrepreneurship and self-employment as something that should be stimulated and supported. In contrast, questions have been raised with regard to the employment situation of some self-employed - more specifically regarding the economic viability of their activities, their degree of 'real independency', their social protection and their working conditions and related health and safety (Parnanen & Sutela, 2016).

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With work a key vector of [Coronavirus Disease 2019] COVID-19 transmission, this report examines why it is critical that occupational health and safety [OHS] measures take centre stage in mitigation policies. Workers in sectors declared essential by state authorities have been mandated to continue working in physical settings during the [COVID-19] pandemic. Several such sectors involve many face‑to‑face contacts with colleagues and clients, meaning that workers face a higher risk of exposure to COVID‑19. Unregulated safety measures, a lack of personal protective equipment and crowded settings further increase the risk in these sectors.

Persisting inequalities are exacerbated by the pandemic, as low‑wage workers, workers from ethnic minorities, migrant workers and women are overrepresented in these sectors. They also face intersecting factors, including precarious contracts, job insecurity, inadequate paid sick leave, a lack of bargaining power and low socioeconomic status. The risks faced by (recent) migrants are compounded by the fact that their residence permits, access to healthcare and housing may be mediated by their employers. Studies show that there is also a gender dimension to the OSH implications of the pandemic, with women facing a higher exposure to the disease, a higher care burden and an increased risk of domestic violence.

These patterns of inequality play a significant role in a health crisis, determining who is at greater risk of becoming infected, and whether or not they will have access to healthcare and self‑isolation. Besides recognising COVID‑19 as an occupational disease and providing adequate protection to workers across sectors, it is important for OSH measures to go beyond workplace exposure to the disease and to include the various factors increasing exposure because of work. Policy recommendations include better representation of workers at all levels of employment, sector‑specific OSH measures, broader EU‑wide policies and infrastructures, improved job security and sick leave policies, disaggregated data collection and inclusive messaging.

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Low employment quality and precarious employment have been associated with adverse mental health outcomes, yet the extent to which this association may be explained by the experience of unemployment 'scarring' has not yet been explored. From a life course perspective, understanding this possible confounding is necessary. Drawing on the United Kingdom's Understanding Society dataset and using latent class analysis, we derived a typology of employment quality across six dimensions and assessed the links between individuals' employment quality, unemployment history, and mental well-being and psychological distress. Our results show that precarious types of employment as well as a higher quality 'protected part-time' were linked to low mental well-being, though important gender differences were noted. Accounting for past unemployment did not fully explain these associations. No such adverse associations were observed for increased psychological distress. Our results help further the understanding of employment quality as a social determinant of health and highlight the need for both life course and gender-sensitive research in this area.

Published abstract.

Forthcoming article first published online 22 October 2024 by Sage Publications. Show less